Georgia

Formerly the holiday haunt of the privileged elite of the Soviet Union, Georgia is blessed with stunning scenery, a balmy climate and a rich variety of flora and fauna. Enclosed high valleys, wide basins, health spas with famous mineral waters, caves and waterfalls combine in this land of varied landscapes and striking beauty.

With its stone houses built around vine-draped courtyards, and winding streets, the capital, Tbilisi, has a lively, Mediterranean atmosphere. Sukhumi, the capital of Abkhazia in the far northwest of Georgia, was until civil unrest began a relaxed, sunny port/resort, renowned for its beaches fringed with palms and eucalyptus trees, lively open-air cafes and cosmopolitan population. Peace has been restored since the city was involved in the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict in the early 1990s, but the city is less ethnically diverse than it once was.

Georgia became independent from the Soviet Union after an overwhelming majority voted in favour of independence in a referendum held in April 1991.

Apart from the dire state of the Georgian economy, the country's main problems have been the secessionist revolts in the outlying Georgian provinces of Abkhazia on the Black Sea coast (where Gamsakhurdia was located) and South Ossetia in the north.

In 1994, after two years of sporadic fighting, South Ossetia was brought back into the fold, but the Abkhazia problem has proved quite intractable. The only existing mediation effort, on the part of the UN, is at a standstill and Abkhazia is now effectively isolated from the rest of Georgia. The government also faces problems in the Pankisi Gorge region, which is reputed to be a haven for Islamic militants.

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan is an Islamic former Soviet Republic on the Caspian Sea, an oil rich and strategically important nation that is the key geopolitical power in the Caucasus. Azerbaijan's location has always made it a gateway between east and west, and the country was an important stop on the Silk Route. Over the centuries, Azerbaijan has been incorporated into most major regional empires, including the Russian, Turkish and Persian and has been an independent republic since the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Taking in the stunning Caucasus Mountains to the north, the lush green valleys of the south and large swathes of arid semi-desert in between, Azerbaijan is a beautiful country with superb scenery, although it remains virtually unknown to the average traveller. Visitors usually base themselves in the capital Baku, from where it is easy to visit most of the country's biggest attractions.

Things To Do
Explore the fabulous Içeri Seher, the walled old city of Baku. The narrow streets, the old mansions and the myriad mosques make this the most authentic experience of Baku before the oil boom of the 20th century created the modern city.

• Climb the multiple spiral staircases inside Maiden's Tower, which overlooks the Caspian in the Içeri Seher, and be privy to a stunning 360-degree view of the city.

• Visit the enchantingly weird mud volcanoes of Qobustan and see the astonishing nearby Stone and Bronze Age petroglyphs all on a day trip from Baku.

• Discover Sheki, one of Azerbaijan's most beautiful towns, set in the mountains and with a large number of well-preserved mosques and caravanserais from the 18th century.

• Join spiritual Azeris on a climb up Beshbarmaq Dag (Five Finger Mountain), which rises dramatically 520m above the coast and is one of Azerbaijan's most holy animist sites.

Things To See
Watch the flames dance at Yanar Dag (fire mountain), a short distance from Baku, where a 10m (33ft) wall of fire blazes day and night thanks to underground natural gas. Pull up a chair at the nearby chaikhana at sunset.

• Shop for exquisite copper products in the Persian mountain town of Lahic, where great hiking, charming architecture and natural beauty combine for the ultimate mountain escape.

• Uncover glimpses of Zoroastrianism at the Ateshgah Fire Temple in Surakhany. The temple was established by Parsee fire-worshippers living in Baku in the 18th century and Zoroastrians still occasionally stage ritual dances here.

• Discover the remote mountain village of Xinaliq, where you can find a unique ethnic group of 1,000 Tats, who have preserved the original language, customs and traditions of this ancient and threatened Iranian ethnic group from the Caucasus.

• Tour the desolate Absheron Peninsula beyond Baku and explore the 14th-century defensive fortresses built by the Shirvanshahs. The best-preserved of these are those at Ramana, Nardaran and Mardakan.

Armenia

Armenia is a trove of history, littered with crumbling churches perched in spectacular settings. Landscapes transition rapidly from lush forests to shimmering lakes and stark deserts. But the best thing about Armenia is the Armenians themselves - ever welcoming and eager to show off their country to visitors.

Christianity arrived in 301AD and Armenia proudly calls itself the world's oldest Christian nation. Its kings once held lands as far away as Syria and the Black Sea coast. Lying on the Silk Road and wedged between Persian, Turkish and Russian empires, the country has seen its share of passing merchants, holy men and armies. Since the break up of the Soviet Union Armenia has seen a revival of nationalism and traditional culture.

The capital Yerevan is the nation's hub of cultural activity and progressive thought. The city sports impressive museums and a lively modern arts scene. Cafe culture has been perfected and it's de rigueur to spend inordinate amounts of time lingering over bottles of Armenian cognac. Armenian food is another treat - always served hot and fresh you can expect mounds of grilled meats and vegetables straight from the nearest garden.

Visitors will find mysterious stalactite caves, forgotten stone carvings and small villages that have barely entered the 21st century. Just when you think you've seen everything another old monastery pops up on the horizon.

Bangladesh

Hiding behind the evening-news images of cyclones and floods is a lush land with a rich history and passionate people. Visit archaeological sites dating back over 2000 years, check out the longest beach and the largest littoral mangrove forest in the world, and see the decaying mansions of 19th-century maharajas.

When TO Go
The best time to visit Bangladesh is in the cold season, from October to February, when the weather is dry and fresh. Avoid April when humidity and heat gang up to make conditions intolerable.

Weather
The climate of Bangladesh is subtropical and tropical with days still averaging 25°C (77°F) in January, 35°C (95°F) in April and lingering around the 30°C (86°F) mark for most of the year. Bangladesh has three main seasons: the monsoonal or 'wet' season from late May to early October; the 'cold' season from mid-October to the end of February; and the 'hot' season (known in Bangladesh as the 'little rainy season') from mid-March to mid-May. There is also a 'cyclone season' - May to June and October to November. Despite the fact that these are the only observable seasons, locals commonly refer to six: Basanto (spring), Grishma (summer), Barsha (rainy), Sharat (autumn), Hemanto (misty) and Sheet (winter).

Sights
Mainimati Ruins religious/spiritual
Somapuri Vihara archaeological site
Sundarbans National Park National park

Money & Costs
Bangladesh is a very cheap country to travel if you're prepared to travel on a budget; in fact there's often no choice but to get by on budget food, accommodation and travel. It's possible to average US$4 a day if you go 2nd class on trains, travel on local buses, stay in the cheapest of hotels with shared bathroom and no air-con and eat at the very cheapest restaurants. If you want to escape nerve-shattering buses and reduce your risk of stomach bugs, US$10-15 a day will get you a decent hotel room with its own bathroom, a couple of good meals a day and first-class train travel. If you want to spend big, it's possible, but there isn't a huge range of top-end accommodation or restaurants outside Dhaka.

Cash and travellers cheques in US dollars are preferred by banks to British pounds. Outside Dhaka and Chittagong you'll have problems changing pounds. Credit cards are widely accepted at hotels, guesthouses and restaurants in Dhaka and Chittagong, but virtually nowhere else. Amex users can get a cash advance with their card.

A tip, or baksheesh , seems to be demanded in almost every exchange, and is an essential part of the Islamic social order of being compassionate to those less fortunate than oneself. In restaurants, Bangladeshis almost never tip, but waiters may expect a 5% tip in Dhaka restaurants, especially those frequented by foreigners. Most transactions require bargaining, which is considered a normal part of life in Bangladesh. A rule of thumb is to offer about half the original price and work up. It's worth remembering that a few extra taka are likely to help your bargaining adversary more than they'll hurt you.

Getting There
Although Dhaka International Airport is far from being a major Asian crossroads, there are plenty of international flights. Indeed, many travellers use Dhaka as the gateway to the Indian subcontinent to take advantage of cheap fares from Europe. Bangkok and Kolkata are the main destinations for flights in and out of Bangladesh.

The situation with overland crossings to/from India is vague. The main crossings are at Benapole-Haridispur (on the Kolkata route) and Tamabil-Dawki (on the Shillong route). If officials tell you that you cannot cross elsewhere, be sceptical, insistent but polite, since travellers have been crossing in small numbers at Hili-Balurghat, Godagari-Lalgola and several other border crossings.

Overland routes between the subcontinent and Myanmar have been closed since the early 1950s. Even if the border was to be opened in the future, it's likely that all the formerly navigable roads across the frontier have long since been devoured by the jungle. The Myanmar army has also planted landmines along the border.A change of route permit is required for travellers who entered Bangladesh by air but leave by land.

Getting Around
Internal transport in Bangladesh is cheap. The rule is: if you want a seat, get there early and be assertive and be patient. Biman and GMG have flights radiating from Dhaka to cities, including Chittagong and Cox's Bazar. Flights are cheap but are still more than three times 1st-class train fares.

Bangladesh has a fairly extensive system of passable roads but they are crammed with buses. Bus drivers in Bangladesh are among the world's most reckless, as evidenced by the incredible number of bus accidents occurring every day. Trains are a lot easier on the nerves, knees and backside, and those plying the major routes are actually quite good, at least in 1st class. However, travelling by rail between Dhaka and points west is quite complicated for three reasons: unbridged rivers requiring crossing by ferry, circuitous routing, and differing gauges between the east and west sections of the country.

The distinguishing feature of internal travel in Bangladesh is the presence of a well-developed and well-used system of water transport, though travelling by boat is slow. A trip to Bangladesh which does not include taking a trip down a river is like going to the Alps and not skiing or hiking. The famous (though slightly accident-prone) 'Rocket' paddlewheel steamer runs from Dhaka to Khulna four times a week, but there are plenty of other fascinating ferries to catch.

Self-drive cars are not available in Bangladesh. It is, however, inexpensive to hire chauffeur-driven cars in major cities. In cities you'll find rickshaws and auto-rickshaws, which are inexpensive once the compulsory bargaining process is completed.

Pre-20th-Century History

Medieval European geographers located paradise at the mouth of the Ganges and although this was overhopeful, Bengal was probably the wealthiest part of the subcontinent up until the 16th century. The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. All of this was just a prelude to the unstoppable tide of Islam which washed over northern India at the end of the 12th century. Mohammed Bakhtiar, from Turkistan, captured Bengal in 1199 with only 20 men thanks to an unexplained 'bold and clever strategy'.

Under the Moghul viceroys, art and literature flourished, overland trade expanded and Bengal was opened to world maritime trade - the latter marking the death knell of Moghul power as Europeans began to establish themselves in the region. The Portuguese arrived as early as the 15th century but were ousted in 1633 by local opposition. The East India Company negotiated terms to establish a fortified trading post in Kolkata in 1690. The decline of Moghul power led to greater provincial autonomy, heralding the rise of the independent dynasty of the nawabs of Bengal. Humble East India Company clerk Robert Clive ended up effectively ruling Bengal when one of the impetuous nawabs attacked the thriving British enclave in Kolkata and stuffed those unlucky enough not to escape in an underground cellar. Clive retook Kolkata a year later and the British Government replaced the East India Company following the Indian Mutiny in 1857.

The Brits established an organisational and social structure unparalleled in Bengal, and Kolkata became one of the most important centres for commerce, education and culture in the subcontinent. However, many Bangladeshi historians blame the Brits' dictatorial agricultural policies and promotion of the semi-feudal zamindar system for draining the region of its wealth and damaging its social fabric. The British presence was a relief to the minority Hindus but a catastrophe for the Muslims. The Hindus cooperated with the Brits, entering British educational institutions and studying the English language, but the Muslims refused to cooperate, and rioted whenever crops failed or another local product was rendered unprofitable by government policy.

Modern History
At the close of WWII it was clear that Indian independence was inevitable. It was attained in 1947 but the struggle was bitter and divisive, especially in Bengal where the fight for self-government was complicated by internal religious conflict. The British, realising any agreement between the Muslims and Hindus was impossible, decided to partition the subcontinent, but Bengal and Punjab, the two overwhelmingly Muslim regions, lay on opposite sides of India. The situation was complicated in Bengal where the major cash crop, jute, was produced in the Muslim-dominated east, but processed and shipped from the Hindu-dominated city of Kolkata in the west.

East Bengal became the runt state of East Pakistan. It was administered unfavourably from West Pakistan, with which it shared few similarities apart from the Muslim faith. Inequalities between the two regions soon stirred up a sense of Bengali nationalism that had not been reckoned with during the push for Muslim independence. When the Pakistan government declared that 'Urdu and only Urdu' would be the national language, the Bangla-speaking Bengalis decided it was time to assert themselves. The language issue quickly became a self-government issue, while Pakistan's response to the devastating cyclone of 1970 was seen as ungenerous and added to nationalist feelings. When the Awami League, a nationalist party, won a majority in the 1971 national elections, the president of Pakistan, faced with this unacceptable result, postponed opening the National Assembly. Riots and strikes broke out in East Pakistan, the independent state of Bangladesh was unilaterally announced, and Pakistan sent troops to quell the rebellion.

The ensuing war was one of the shortest and bloodiest of modern times, with the Pakistan army occupying all major towns, using napalm against villages, and slaughtering and raping villagers. Bangladeshis refer to Pakistan's brutal tactics as attempted genocide. Border clashes between Pakistan and India increased as Indian-trained Bangladeshi guerrillas crossed the border. When the Pakistani air force made a pre-emptive attack on Indian forces, open warfare ensued. Indian troops crossed the border and the Pakistani army found itself being attacked from the east by the Indian army, the north and east by guerrillas and from all quarters by the civilian population. In 11 days it was all over and Bangladesh, the world's 139th country, officially came into existence. Sheikh Mujib, one of the founders of the Awami League, became the country's first prime minister in January 1972; he was assassinated in 1975 during a period of crisis.

The ruined and decimated new country experienced famine in 1973-74, followed by martial law, successive military coups and political assassinations. In 1979 Bangladesh began a short-lived experiment with democracy led by the overwhelmingly popular President Zia, who established good relationships with the West and the oil-rich Islamic countries. His assassination in 1981 ultimately returned the country to a military government that periodically made vague announcements that elections would be held 'soon'. While these announcements were rapturously greeted by the local press as proof that Bangladesh was indeed a democracy, nothing came of them until 1991. That year the military dictator General Ershad was forced to resign by an unprecedented popular movement led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and the Awami League.

In 1991 democracy was re-established and Begum Khaleda Zia became prime minister. The economy ticked along at a healthy growth rate, and ties with the West were strengthened. By 1994, however, many Bangladeshis had become disenchanted with the Zia government. Some promised reforms hadn't materialised, police violence was on the rise, lawlessness was still a problem and corruption remained endemic. The opposition called for mass general strikes.

A 1996 general election was widely boycotted and the legitimacy of the return of the Zia government was suspect. On 30 March Zia stood down under pressure and elections, generally seen as free and fair, were won by Sheikh Hasina Wazed of the Awami League.
Recent History

The wheel turned in October 2001, when the Bangladesh Nationalist Party won the parliamentary elections and Zia was sworn in as prime minister. The government in the last few years has pushed through some social reforms aimed at improving the lives of women, such as making acid attacks punishable by death.

A series of bombings of political and religious gatherings continues to puzzle authorities. Although the major parties blame each other, extremist Islamic groups may also be a factor.

Afghanistan

Overview

Friendly, beautiful Afghanistan was once well known on the backpacking circuit as the place to stop for unparalleled hospitality, fantastic food, great hiking and...um...OK, we'll say it, that legendary hashish. Things, sadly, have changed a lot.

More than 25 years of war and Taliban rule left the dramatic countryside peppered with landmines and reduced many of the finest monuments and minarets to rubble. The poverty left in war's wake has taken an impossible human toll and encouraged the theft and sale of priceless national treasures.

Travel Warning: Extreme Danger - Landmines

Large areas of Afghanistan remain extremely dangerous, particularly during fighting season. NATO-led military operations are ongoing against the remnants of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda, and Pakistan's army is fighting pro-Taliban militants on the Afghan border.

Acts of violence, often targeting foreigners, continue to occur regularly in Kabul and elsewhere. On July 7, a bomb attack on the Indian embassy in Kabul killed 41 people. A suicide bombing killed more than 100 people watching a dog fight just outside Kandahar on 17 February; the following day, another bomb blast in the same province killed a further 35 civilians and injured dozens more. More recently, on 17 April, a suicide bomber killed at least 20 people and injured about 30 in Zaranj.

Visitors should maintain a very high level of security awareness, avoid demonstrations and political gatherings, avoid travelling alone or at night, and contact their consular representative for the latest information.

Afghanistan is highly contaminated with land mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO); it's one of the worst affected countries in the world. Extreme caution should be taken when venturing into areas that may be contaminated.

When to go

Check the political climate as well as a weather forecast: it's essential to know what's happening in Afghanistan before planning a trip.

Afghanistan has four distinct seasons. There's fine weather in spring (March to May) and the country blooms, but rain and melting snow can make many roads difficult to traverse. Summer (June to August) can be blisteringly hot everywhere except the mountains - Herat, Mazar-e Sharif and Jalalabad all swelter, but Kabul and Bamiyan enjoy pleasant, cool nights. Autumn (September to November) is one of the best times to visit, as there is pleasant, dry weather and plenty of delicious Afghan fruit. From the end of November, winter sets in, and snow is common across much of the country. Travel in the mountains is particularly tricky at this time.

Weather

Afghanistan's mostly mountainous geography makes for varying degrees of harshness depending on the altitude. Most of the country experiences a severe winter from December to February where 8°C (47°F) is a warm day and -8°C (18°F) a very cold night. A light to moderate wet season occurs from October to May with March and April being the only particularly wet months. Between June and September it is quite dry with average highs of 30-32°C (86-89°F) and apart from the arid winds along the Iranian border it can be quite pleasant. However May and September to October provide particularly comfortable mid-20°C (around 80°F) days and a little more moisture. Afghanistan's lower areas have slightly warmer winters with the only significant rain for the year and summer days bake with an average high around 39°C (104°F) in July.

Events

Be aware that large gatherings, including those marking national and Muslim holidays are usually best avoided due to security concerns. But, should curiosity get the best of you, cover yourself according to the strictest local custom and check out these celebrations.

One of the most important holidays in Afghanistan is Nawroz (New Days), celebrated around March 21, on the spring equinox. It's an Islamic adaptation of far more ancient festivities, and was banned by the Taliban. Special foods are prepared and gifts are exchanged. Mazar-e Sharif hosts Afghanistan's biggest Nawroz celebrations. Revolution Day takes place on April 28, marking the mujaheddin's capture of Kabul, although many Afghans resent this celebration as it also marks the slide into the worst of the civil war. May 1 means Labor Day, followed by Remembrance Day for Martyrs and the Disabled on May 4. Independence Day (August 19) at least is celebrated with some fanfare. Ahmad Shah Massoud Day on September 9 is another equally martial - and potentially divisive - holiday.

The four major Islamic holidays are celebrated according to the lunar calendar, so check the dates and plan ahead. Eid al-Azha, the Feast of Sacrifice, marks the beginning of the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). Those who can afford it buy and slaughter an animal, then share the meat with friends and strangers. Moulid an-Nabi, the Prophet Mohammed's birthday, is much more low-key.

Ramazan (known as Ramadan elsewhere) is the month of fasting. From sunrise to sunset devout Muslims who can physically handle it are asked to go without food, drink, cigarettes and just about everything else. It's very rude to do any of these things in front of people observing this important holiday. Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramazan, when friends and families gather to eat, drink and, if so inclined, smoke cigarettes.

Sights

Band-e-Amir
Minaret of Jam
Pai Hesar castle
Panjshir Valley
mausoleum
Ruined City of Balkh

Currency

Name
Afghani

Symbol
Afg

Sample Price Guide

ice cream
Afg 15.00

kebab and bread meal
Afg 70.00

1.5 litre bottle soft drink
Afg 50.00

100km minibus ride
Afg 100.00

Getting There

There are few direct flights to Afghanistan from outside the immediate region. The most popular route from Europe or North America is to fly to Dubai, from where there are plenty of connections to Kabul. Coming from the east, the most convenient hubs to catch flights from are Delhi and Islamabad. When entering the country by air, formalities are fairly simple, but be prepared for long queues. Baggage reclaim can sometimes be something of a scrum, but at least the carousel normally has electricity these days. Customs checks on arrival are fairly cursory. Currently only Kabul International Airport (tel: 020 2300 016) receives commercial flights into Afghanistan. There is an ATM and currency exchange at the airport.

Entering by land, Afghanistan maintains open border crossings with all its neighbours except China. Most of Afghanistan's borders are so porous, you'll be generally looked on as more a novelty than a bureaucratic hindrance. Bear in mind that Afghanistan has 30 minutes' time difference with all its neighbours. Some borders are closed on certain days, and everything grinds to a halt at Friday lunch time.

Getting Around

The two Afghan airlines, Ariana (tel: 020 2100 271), www.flyariana.com ) and Kam Air (tel: 020 2301 753); www.flykamair.com ), both operate domestic schedules, linking Kabul with daily flights to Herat and Mazar-e Sharif, and Kandahar several times a week. There's also a weekly Ariana Kandahar-Herat flight. For other destinations, the schedule is less predictable. In theory, Ariana also operates a twice-weekly flight to Faizabad, and weekly flights to Kunduz, Maimana and Shiberghan. In practice, these services can be cancelled for months at a time. Kam Air operates a reliable twice-weekly flight between Herat and Mazar-e Sharif. Kandahar and Maimana flights are also apparently planned. Demand is high for flights, so book as far in advance as you can. Ariana's Kabul office can be chaotic but is surprisingly efficient. Kam Air run a slightly tighter ship. Elsewhere, things are more disorganised so you might need to be persistent to get your name on the list. You'll need your passport when you book your ticket. Always recheck the time of departure the day before you fly. Schedule changes are both common and unexplained. If you're in the provinces you'll probably depart late anyway, as you wait for the plane to arrive from Kabul.

Failing an airline seat, your next best bet is a minibus; Afghanistan is held together by an indestructible fleet of Toyota HiAces that ply the country's atrocious roads.

Yellow-and-white shared taxis are a popular way to travel between towns. They leave from the same terminal as minibuses. They're faster than minibuses and, with fewer seats, fill up and leave sooner. Fares are around a quarter to a third more expensive than the equivalent minibus. Cars are available for hire in Kabul, but always come complete with driver.

Pre-20th-Century History

Afghanistan's history as a country spans little more than two centuries, although it has contributed to the greatness of many great Central Asian empires. As with much of the region, the rise and fall of political power has been inextricably tied to the rise and fall of religions.

It was in Afghanistan that the ancient religion of Zoroastrianism began in the 6th century BCE. Later, Buddhism spread west from India to the Bamiyan Valley, where it remained strong until the 10th century AD. The eastward sweep of Islam reached Afghanistan in the 7th century AD, and today the vast majority of Afghans are Muslim.

Between 1220 and 1223, Jenghiz Khan tore through the country, reducing Balkh, Herat, Ghazni and Bamiyan to rubble. After damage was repaired, Timur swept through in the early 1380s and reduced the region to rubble again. Timur's reign ushered in the golden Timurid era, when poetry, architecture and miniature painting reached their zenith.

Timur's fourth son, Shah Rukh, built shrines, mosques and medressas throughout Khorasan, from Mashhad, in modern-day Iran, to Balkh. Herat continued to prosper under Sultan Hussain Baykara (died 1506), producing such great Central Asian poets as Jami and Alisher Navoi.

The rise of the great Mughal empire again lifted Afghanistan to heights of power. Babur had his capital in Kabul in 1512, but as the Mughals extended their power into India, Afghanistan went from being the centre of the empire to merely a peripheral part of it.

The 19th century was a period of often comic-book confrontation with the British, who were afraid of the effects of unruly neighbours on their great Indian colony. The rise of tensions and the weakness of the Afghan kingdom resulted in some remarkably unsuccessful and bloody wars being fought on extremely flimsy pretexts. The first, between 1839 and 1842, saw the British garrison almost totally wiped out while retreating to the Khyber Pass - out of 15,000 persons, only one man survived. The British managed to reoccupy Kabul and carried out a bit of razing and burning to show who was boss, but this again was short-lived.

Following another short war, from 1878 to 1880, Afghanistan agreed to become more or less a protectorate of the British, happily accepted an annual payment to keep things in shape and agreed to a British resident in Kabul. No sooner had the diplomatic mission been installed in Kabul, however, than all its members were murdered. This time the British decided to keep control over Afghanistan's external affairs, but to leave the internal matters strictly to the Afghans themselves.

In 1893 the British drew Afghanistan's eastern boundaries along the so-called Durand Line, neatly partitioning many Pashtun tribes into what today is Pakistan. This has been a cause of Afghan-Pakistani strife for many years, and is the reason the Afghans refer to the western part of Pakistan as Pashtunistan.

Modern History

From WWI onwards Afghanistan's trade was tilted heavily towards the USSR and Soviet foreign aid to Afghanistan far outweighed Western assistance. Turkish-style reforms failed and the country remained precariously unstable for decades. The postwar kingdom ended in 1973 when the king was neatly overthrown while away in Europe. His 'progressive' successors were hardly any more progressive than he had been, but the situation under them was far better than that which was to follow.

After the bloody 1978 pro-Moscow revolution, Afghanistan rapidly deteriorated. A second revolution brought in a government that leaned heavily on Soviet support and the country lurched towards anarchy. The USSR decided that enough was enough. Another 'popular' revolution took place in 1979, and a Soviet puppet government was installed in Kabul, with what looked like half the Soviet army lined up behind it.

An Islamic jihad (holy war) was called and seven mujaheddin factions emerged. The Soviets soon found themselves mired in what later became known as 'Russia's Vietnam'. The war ground on through the 1980s. Afghan tribal warriors remained disorganised but determined; the CIA pumped up to US$700 million a year into the conflict in one of the largest covert operations in history. Soon the Soviet regime held only the cities and in the late 1980s Gorbachov finally pulled the Russians out.

The war had cost the Soviets over 15,000 men, and contributed significantly to the collapse of the USSR. More than a million Afghans lay dead and 6.2 million people, over half the world's refugee population, had fled the country.

The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 weakened the government of President Najibullah and in 1992 Najibullah was ousted; a week later fighting erupted between rival mujaheddin factions in Kabul. An interim president was installed and replaced two months later by Burhanuddin Rabbani, a founder of the country's Islamic political movement, backed by mujaheddin commander Ahmad Shah Massoud.

Recent History

Mujaheddin in-fighting was thrown into sharp relief in the mid-90s by the spectacular military successes of a group of Islamic fighters called the Taliban ('talib' means 'religious student' or 'seeker of knowledge'), a group of ethnic Pashtuns backed by Pakistan. They took Kandahar in 1994 and in September 1996 entered Kabul unopposed - Rabbani and Massoud's forces had already fled north.

The international recognition the Taliban craved never arrived. They made themselves infamous by their sadistic repression of women and dissidents as well as their destruction of the country's cultural heritage, and almost pushed Iran into a regional war. Showing little interest in trying to govern and rebuild Afghanistan, they instead played host to terrorist kingpin Osama bin Laden (attracting UN sanctions in the process), becoming enthralled by the radical Islamism of his Al-Qaeda network. On 9 September 2001 Massoud was assassinated by Al-Qaeda, an act thought to be the trigger for the 9/11 attacks on New York City and Washington, DC. The USA and its allies began military operations and quickly overthrew the Taliban, who appeared to literally melt into the mountains. An intermin government, dominated by Massoud's Northern Alliance was quickly installed in Kabul.

Post-Taliban reconstruction has been patchy at best. Progress on the political front has been rapid, with elections leading to a parliament and president in the shape of the Pashtun Hamid Karzai. At the same time however, the slow pace of physical rebuilding is a source of much frustration among Afghans. In particular, a lack of reconstruction in the south has allowed a Taliban insurgency to flare up again, accompanied by a huge increase in opium production. The expansion of NATO troops in the region hopes to address this, but Afghanistan clearly has a long road to travel back to stability.